Table of Contents

Global Aerosol Cans Market Professional Survey Report
1 Industry Overview of Aerosol Cans
    1.1 Definition and Specifications of Aerosol Cans
        1.1.1 Definition of Aerosol Cans
        1.1.2 Specifications of Aerosol Cans
    1.2 Classification of Aerosol Cans
        1.2.1 Aluminum
        1.2.2 Steel
        1.2.3 Plastic
        1.2.4 Others (glass)
    1.3 Applications of Aerosol Cans
        1.3.1 Personal Care
        1.3.2 Household
        1.3.3 Insecticide
        1.3.4 Industrial
        1.3.5 Others
    1.4 Market Segment by Regions
        1.4.1 North America
        1.4.2 Europe
        1.4.3 China
        1.4.4 Japan
        1.4.5 Southeast Asia
        1.4.6 India

2 Manufacturing Cost Structure Analysis of Aerosol Cans
    2.1 Raw Material and Suppliers
    2.2 Manufacturing Cost Structure Analysis of Aerosol Cans
    2.3 Manufacturing Process Analysis of Aerosol Cans
    2.4 Industry Chain Structure of Aerosol Cans

3 Technical Data and Manufacturing Plants Analysis of Aerosol Cans
    3.1 Capacity and Commercial Production Date of Global Aerosol Cans Major Manufacturers
    3.2 Manufacturing Plants Distribution of Global Aerosol Cans Major Manufacturers
    3.3 R&D Status and Technology Source of Global Aerosol Cans Major Manufacturers
    3.4 Raw Materials Sources Analysis of Global Aerosol Cans Major Manufacturers

4 Global Aerosol Cans Overall Market Overview
    4.1 2013-E Overall Market Analysis
    4.2 Capacity Analysis
        4.2.1 2013-E Global Aerosol Cans Capacity and Growth Rate Analysis
        4.2.2 2017 Aerosol Cans Capacity Analysis (Company Segment)
    4.3 Sales Analysis
        4.3.1 2013-E Global Aerosol Cans Sales and Growth Rate Analysis
        4.3.2 2017 Aerosol Cans Sales Analysis (Company Segment)
    4.4 Sales Price Analysis
        4.4.1 2013-E Global Aerosol Cans Sales Price
        4.4.2 2017 Aerosol Cans Sales Price Analysis (Company Segment)

5 Aerosol Cans Regional Market Analysis
    5.1 North America Aerosol Cans Market Analysis
        5.1.1 North America Aerosol Cans Market Overview
        5.1.2 North America 2013-E Aerosol Cans Local Supply, Import, Export, Local Consumption Analysis
        5.1.3 North America 2013-E Aerosol Cans Sales Price Analysis
        5.1.4 North America 2017 Aerosol Cans Market Share Analysis
    5.2 Europe Aerosol Cans Market Analysis
        5.2.1 Europe Aerosol Cans Market Overview
        5.2.2 Europe 2013-E Aerosol Cans Local Supply, Import, Export, Local Consumption Analysis
        5.2.3 Europe 2013-E Aerosol Cans Sales Price Analysis
        5.2.4 Europe 2017 Aerosol Cans Market Share Analysis
    5.3 China Aerosol Cans Market Analysis
        5.3.1 China Aerosol Cans Market Overview
        5.3.2 China 2013-E Aerosol Cans Local Supply, Import, Export, Local Consumption Analysis
        5.3.3 China 2013-E Aerosol Cans Sales Price Analysis
        5.3.4 China 2017 Aerosol Cans Market Share Analysis
    5.4 Japan Aerosol Cans Market Analysis
        5.4.1 Japan Aerosol Cans Market Overview
        5.4.2 Japan 2013-E Aerosol Cans Local Supply, Import, Export, Local Consumption Analysis
        5.4.3 Japan 2013-E Aerosol Cans Sales Price Analysis
        5.4.4 Japan 2017 Aerosol Cans Market Share Analysis
    5.5 Southeast Asia Aerosol Cans Market Analysis
        5.5.1 Southeast Asia Aerosol Cans Market Overview
        5.5.2 Southeast Asia 2013-E Aerosol Cans Local Supply, Import, Export, Local Consumption Analysis
        5.5.3 Southeast Asia 2013-E Aerosol Cans Sales Price Analysis
        5.5.4 Southeast Asia 2017 Aerosol Cans Market Share Analysis
    5.6 India Aerosol Cans Market Analysis
        5.6.1 India Aerosol Cans Market Overview
        5.6.2 India 2013-E Aerosol Cans Local Supply, Import, Export, Local Consumption Analysis
        5.6.3 India 2013-E Aerosol Cans Sales Price Analysis
        5.6.4 India 2017 Aerosol Cans Market Share Analysis

6 Global 2013-E Aerosol Cans Segment Market Analysis (by Type)
    6.1 Global 2013-E Aerosol Cans Sales by Type
    6.2 Different Types of Aerosol Cans Product Interview Price Analysis
    6.3 Different Types of Aerosol Cans Product Driving Factors Analysis
        6.3.1 Aluminum Growth Driving Factor Analysis
        6.3.2 Steel Growth Driving Factor Analysis
        6.3.3 Plastic Growth Driving Factor Analysis
        6.3.4 Others (glass) Growth Driving Factor Analysis

7 Global 2013-E Aerosol Cans Segment Market Analysis (by Application)
    7.1 Global 2013-E Aerosol Cans Consumption by Application
    7.2 Different Application of Aerosol Cans Product Interview Price Analysis
    7.3 Different Application of Aerosol Cans Product Driving Factors Analysis
        7.3.1 Personal Care of Aerosol Cans Growth Driving Factor Analysis
        7.3.2 Household of Aerosol Cans Growth Driving Factor Analysis
        7.3.3 Insecticide of Aerosol Cans Growth Driving Factor Analysis
        7.3.4 Industrial of Aerosol Cans Growth Driving Factor Analysis
        7.3.5 Others of Aerosol Cans Growth Driving Factor Analysis

8 Major Manufacturers Analysis of Aerosol Cans
    8.1 Ball
        8.1.1 Company Profile
        8.1.2 Product Picture and Specifications
            8.1.2.1 Product A
            8.1.2.2 Product B
        8.1.3 Ball 2017 Aerosol Cans Sales, Ex-factory Price, Revenue, Gross Margin Analysis
        8.1.4 Ball 2017 Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution Analysis
    8.2 Crown
        8.2.1 Company Profile
        8.2.2 Product Picture and Specifications
            8.2.2.1 Product A
            8.2.2.2 Product B
        8.2.3 Crown 2017 Aerosol Cans Sales, Ex-factory Price, Revenue, Gross Margin Analysis
        8.2.4 Crown 2017 Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution Analysis
    8.3 BWAY
        8.3.1 Company Profile
        8.3.2 Product Picture and Specifications
            8.3.2.1 Product A
            8.3.2.2 Product B
        8.3.3 BWAY 2017 Aerosol Cans Sales, Ex-factory Price, Revenue, Gross Margin Analysis
        8.3.4 BWAY 2017 Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution Analysis
    8.4 EXAL
        8.4.1 Company Profile
        8.4.2 Product Picture and Specifications
            8.4.2.1 Product A
            8.4.2.2 Product B
        8.4.3 EXAL 2017 Aerosol Cans Sales, Ex-factory Price, Revenue, Gross Margin Analysis
        8.4.4 EXAL 2017 Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution Analysis
    8.5 CCL Container
        8.5.1 Company Profile
        8.5.2 Product Picture and Specifications
            8.5.2.1 Product A
            8.5.2.2 Product B
        8.5.3 CCL Container 2017 Aerosol Cans Sales, Ex-factory Price, Revenue, Gross Margin Analysis
        8.5.4 CCL Container 2017 Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution Analysis
    8.6 DS Container
        8.6.1 Company Profile
        8.6.2 Product Picture and Specifications
            8.6.2.1 Product A
            8.6.2.2 Product B
        8.6.3 DS Container 2017 Aerosol Cans Sales, Ex-factory Price, Revenue, Gross Margin Analysis
        8.6.4 DS Container 2017 Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution Analysis
    8.7 Silgan
        8.7.1 Company Profile
        8.7.2 Product Picture and Specifications
            8.7.2.1 Product A
            8.7.2.2 Product B
        8.7.3 Silgan 2017 Aerosol Cans Sales, Ex-factory Price, Revenue, Gross Margin Analysis
        8.7.4 Silgan 2017 Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution Analysis
    8.8 Ardagh Packaging
        8.8.1 Company Profile
        8.8.2 Product Picture and Specifications
            8.8.2.1 Product A
            8.8.2.2 Product B
        8.8.3 Ardagh Packaging 2017 Aerosol Cans Sales, Ex-factory Price, Revenue, Gross Margin Analysis
        8.8.4 Ardagh Packaging 2017 Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution Analysis
    8.9 Nampak
        8.9.1 Company Profile
        8.9.2 Product Picture and Specifications
            8.9.2.1 Product A
            8.9.2.2 Product B
        8.9.3 Nampak 2017 Aerosol Cans Sales, Ex-factory Price, Revenue, Gross Margin Analysis
        8.9.4 Nampak 2017 Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution Analysis
    8.10 Colep Portugal
        8.10.1 Company Profile
        8.10.2 Product Picture and Specifications
            8.10.2.1 Product A
            8.10.2.2 Product B
        8.10.3 Colep Portugal 2017 Aerosol Cans Sales, Ex-factory Price, Revenue, Gross Margin Analysis
        8.10.4 Colep Portugal 2017 Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution Analysis
    8.11 Shanghai Sunhome
    8.12 Jamestrong Packaging

9 Development Trend of Analysis of Aerosol Cans Market
    9.1 Global Aerosol Cans Market Trend Analysis
        9.1.1 Global -2025 Aerosol Cans Market Size (Volume and Value) Forecast
        9.1.2 Global -2025 Aerosol Cans Sales Price Forecast
    9.2 Aerosol Cans Regional Market Trend
        9.2.1 North America -2025 Aerosol Cans Consumption Forecast
        9.2.2 Europe -2025 Aerosol Cans Consumption Forecast
        9.2.3 China -2025 Aerosol Cans Consumption Forecast
        9.2.4 Japan -2025 Aerosol Cans Consumption Forecast
        9.2.5 Southeast Asia -2025 Aerosol Cans Consumption Forecast
        9.2.6 India -2025 Aerosol Cans Consumption Forecast
    9.3 Aerosol Cans Market Trend (Product Type)
    9.4 Aerosol Cans Market Trend (Application)

10 Aerosol Cans Marketing Type Analysis
    10.1 Aerosol Cans Regional Marketing Type Analysis
    10.2 Aerosol Cans International Trade Type Analysis
    10.3 Traders or Distributors with Contact Information of Aerosol Cans by Region
    10.4 Aerosol Cans Supply Chain Analysis

11 Consumers Analysis of Aerosol Cans
    11.1 Consumer 1 Analysis
    11.2 Consumer 2 Analysis
    11.3 Consumer 3 Analysis
    11.4 Consumer 4 Analysis

12 Conclusion of the Global Aerosol Cans Market Professional Survey Report 2017
    Methodology
    Analyst Introduction
    Data Source
List of Tables and Figures
    Figure Picture of Aerosol Cans
    Table Product Specifications of Aerosol Cans
    Table Classification of Aerosol Cans
    Figure Global Production Market Share of Aerosol Cans by Type
    Figure Aluminum Picture
    Table Major Manufacturers of Aluminum
    Figure Steel Picture
    Table Major Manufacturers of Steel
    Figure Plastic Picture
    Table Major Manufacturers of Plastic
    Figure Others (glass) Picture
    Table Major Manufacturers of Others (glass)
    Table Applications of Aerosol Cans
    Figure Global Consumption Volume Market Share of Aerosol Cans by Application
    Figure Personal Care Examples
    Table Major Consumers in Personal Care
    Figure Household Examples
    Table Major Consumers in Household
    Figure Insecticide Examples
    Table Major Consumers in Insecticide
    Figure Industrial Examples
    Table Major Consumers in Industrial
    Figure Others Examples
    Table Major Consumers in Others
    Figure Market Share of Aerosol Cans by Regions
    Figure North America Aerosol Cans Market Size (Million USD) (2013-2025)
    Figure Europe Aerosol Cans Market Size (Million USD) (2013-2025)
    Figure China Aerosol Cans Market Size (Million USD) (2013-2025)
    Figure Japan Aerosol Cans Market Size (Million USD) (2013-2025)
    Figure Southeast Asia Aerosol Cans Market Size (Million USD) (2013-2025)
    Figure India Aerosol Cans Market Size (Million USD) (2013-2025)
    Table Aerosol Cans Raw Material and Suppliers
    Table Manufacturing Cost Structure Analysis of Aerosol Cans
    Figure Manufacturing Process Analysis of Aerosol Cans
    Figure Industry Chain Structure of Aerosol Cans
    Table Capacity and Commercial Production Date of Global Aerosol Cans Major Manufacturers
    Table Manufacturing Plants Distribution of Global Aerosol Cans Major Manufacturers
    Table R&D Status and Technology Source of Global Aerosol Cans Major Manufacturers
    Table Raw Materials Sources Analysis of Global Aerosol Cans Major Manufacturers
    Table Global Capacity, Sales , Price, Cost, Sales Revenue (M USD) and Gross Margin of Aerosol Cans 2013-E
    Figure Global 2013-E Aerosol Cans Market Size (Volume) and Growth Rate
    Figure Global 2013-E Aerosol Cans Market Size (Value) and Growth Rate
    Table 2013-E Global Aerosol Cans Capacity and Growth Rate
    Table 2017 Global Aerosol Cans Capacity (M Units) List (Company Segment)
    Table 2013-E Global Aerosol Cans Sales (M Units) and Growth Rate
    Table 2017 Global Aerosol Cans Sales (M Units) List (Company Segment)
    Table 2013-E Global Aerosol Cans Sales Price (USD/Unit)
    Table 2017 Global Aerosol Cans Sales Price (USD/Unit) List (Company Segment)
    Figure North America Capacity Overview
    Table North America Supply, Import, Export and Consumption (M Units) of Aerosol Cans 2013-E
    Figure North America 2013-E Aerosol Cans Sales Price (USD/Unit)
    Figure North America 2017 Aerosol Cans Sales Market Share
    Figure Europe Capacity Overview
    Table Europe Supply, Import, Export and Consumption (M Units) of Aerosol Cans 2013-E
    Figure Europe 2013-E Aerosol Cans Sales Price (USD/Unit)
    Figure Europe 2017 Aerosol Cans Sales Market Share
    Figure China Capacity Overview
    Table China Supply, Import, Export and Consumption (M Units) of Aerosol Cans 2013-E
    Figure China 2013-E Aerosol Cans Sales Price (USD/Unit)
    Figure China 2017 Aerosol Cans Sales Market Share
    Figure Japan Capacity Overview
    Table Japan Supply, Import, Export and Consumption (M Units) of Aerosol Cans 2013-E
    Figure Japan 2013-E Aerosol Cans Sales Price (USD/Unit)
    Figure Japan 2017 Aerosol Cans Sales Market Share
    Figure Southeast Asia Capacity Overview
    Table Southeast Asia Supply, Import, Export and Consumption (M Units) of Aerosol Cans 2013-E
    Figure Southeast Asia 2013-E Aerosol Cans Sales Price (USD/Unit)
    Figure Southeast Asia 2017 Aerosol Cans Sales Market Share
    Figure India Capacity Overview
    Table India Supply, Import, Export and Consumption (M Units) of Aerosol Cans 2013-E
    Figure India 2013-E Aerosol Cans Sales Price (USD/Unit)
    Figure India 2017 Aerosol Cans Sales Market Share
    Table Global 2013-E Aerosol Cans Sales (M Units) by Type
    Table Different Types Aerosol Cans Product Interview Price
    Table Global 2013-E Aerosol Cans Sales (M Units) by Application
    Table Different Application Aerosol Cans Product Interview Price
    Table Ball Information List
    Table Product Overview
    Table 2017 Ball Aerosol Cans Revenue (Million USD), Sales (M Units), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit)
    Figure 2017 Ball Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution
    Table Crown Information List
    Table Product Overview
    Table 2017 Crown Aerosol Cans Revenue (Million USD), Sales (M Units), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit)
    Figure 2017 Crown Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution
    Table BWAY Information List
    Table Product Overview
    Table 2017 BWAY Aerosol Cans Revenue (Million USD), Sales (M Units), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit)
    Figure 2017 BWAY Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution
    Table EXAL Information List
    Table Product Overview
    Table 2017 EXAL Aerosol Cans Revenue (Million USD), Sales (M Units), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit)
    Figure 2017 EXAL Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution
    Table CCL Container Information List
    Table Product Overview
    Table 2017 CCL Container Aerosol Cans Revenue (Million USD), Sales (M Units), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit)
    Figure 2017 CCL Container Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution
    Table DS Container Information List
    Table Product Overview
    Table 2017 DS Container Aerosol Cans Revenue (Million USD), Sales (M Units), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit)
    Figure 2017 DS Container Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution
    Table Silgan Information List
    Table Product Overview
    Table 2017 Silgan Aerosol Cans Revenue (Million USD), Sales (M Units), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit)
    Figure 2017 Silgan Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution
    Table Ardagh Packaging Information List
    Table Product Overview
    Table 2017 Ardagh Packaging Aerosol Cans Revenue (Million USD), Sales (M Units), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit)
    Figure 2017 Ardagh Packaging Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution
    Table Nampak Information List
    Table Product Overview
    Table 2017 Nampak Aerosol Cans Revenue (Million USD), Sales (M Units), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit)
    Figure 2017 Nampak Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution
    Table Colep Portugal Information List
    Table Product Overview
    Table 2017 Colep Portugal Aerosol Cans Revenue (Million USD), Sales (M Units), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit)
    Figure 2017 Colep Portugal Aerosol Cans Business Region Distribution
    Table Shanghai Sunhome Information List
    Table Jamestrong Packaging Information List
    Figure Global -2025 Aerosol Cans Market Size (M Units) and Growth Rate Forecast
    Figure Global -2025 Aerosol Cans Market Size (Million USD) and Growth Rate Forecast
    Figure Global -2025 Aerosol Cans Sales Price (USD/Unit) Forecast
    Figure North America -2025 Aerosol Cans Consumption Volume (M Units) and Growth Rate Forecast
    Figure China -2025 Aerosol Cans Consumption Volume (M Units) and Growth Rate Forecast
    Figure Europe -2025 Aerosol Cans Consumption Volume (M Units) and Growth Rate Forecast
    Figure Southeast Asia -2025 Aerosol Cans Consumption Volume (M Units) and Growth Rate Forecast
    Figure Japan -2025 Aerosol Cans Consumption Volume (M Units) and Growth Rate Forecast
    Figure India -2025 Aerosol Cans Consumption Volume (M Units) and Growth Rate Forecast
    Table Global Sales Volume (M Units) of Aerosol Cans by Type -2025
    Table Global Consumption Volume (M Units) of Aerosol Cans by Application -2025
    Table Traders or Distributors with Contact Information of Aerosol Cans by Region

Market segments

1. By Material

• Aluminum (neckt-in, straight-wall, shaped; single-material and laminated)
• Steel (tinplate, tin-free steel)
• Plastic (PET, HDPE aerosol-like dispensers)
• Others (glass, specialty composites — niche)

2. By Can Type / Geometry

• Necked-in cans (typical for personal care)
• Straight-wall cans (industrial, household)
• Shaped / novelty cans (premium personal care, limited edition)
• Multi-part / composite cans (specialty industrial uses)

3. By Can Size / Capacity

• Small (≤50 ml) — travel / sample
• Medium (50–250 ml) — personal care / household
• Large (250–600 ml) — industrial, paints
• Bulk / specialized (>600 ml)

4. By Propellant / Dispensing System

• Hydrocarbon propellants (butane/propane blends)
• Compressed gas (air, N2)
• VOC-reduced / compressed non-flammable propellants
• Bag-on-valve & pump/trigger alternatives (non-aerosol but competing formats)

5. By Application / End-Use

• Personal care (deodorants, haircare, cosmetics) — largest by value
• Household (air fresheners, cleaners)
• Insecticide / pest control
• Industrial (spray paints, lubricants, maintenance aerosols)
• Food (whipped cream, culinary sprays) — niche/regulatory
• Others (medical aerosols, specialty coatings)

6. By Finish / Decoration

• Printed (offset, lithography)
• Sleeve-printed
• Embossed / debossed / cold-formed shaping
• Specialty coatings (barrier coatings, anti-scratch, matte/gloss finishes)

7. By Distribution Channel

• Direct to large FMCG / industrial customers (long-term contracts)
• Distributors / wholesalers (regional)
• Co-packers / contract manufacturers (private label)
• Retail / e-commerce (smaller-volume consumer packs)

8. By Geography

• Asia-Pacific (China, India, Japan, South Korea, SEA)
• North America (U.S., Canada, Mexico)
• Europe (Germany, France, UK, Italy, Spain)
• Latin America (Brazil, Argentina)
• Middle East & Africa (GCC, South Africa)

Key players

Note: this list focuses on aerosol can manufacturers, large converters/contract-packers, and major component suppliers active globally or regionally.

A. Global metal can manufacturers (primary can producers)

• Ball Corporation — global aluminum leader, strong recycling credentials
• Crown Holdings — diversified metal packaging (aluminum & steel), global footprint
• Ardagh Group / Ardagh Packaging — European/NA heavyweights in metal and glass packaging
• Silgan Holdings — broad metal packaging portfolio; strong in consumer categories
• BWAY Corporation (Ball Packaging / BWAY legacy assets) — North American capacity
• EXAL Corporation — global aluminum can specialist (including aerosol)
• Nampak Ltd. — African and emerging market presence
• Alltub Group — European aluminum & specialty shapes

B. Regional / specialty canmakers & converters

• Colep (Portugal) — European contract packer & aerosol specialist
• Jamestrong Packaging / Shanghai Sunhome — large Chinese converters & canmakers
• Kian Joo Can Factory (Malaysia) — SE Asia metal packaging leader
• Toyo Seikan Group (Japan) — major Asia-Pacific metal & aerosol packaging supplier
• Hindustan Tin Works (India) — Indian market specialist
• CPMC Holdings / local Chinese converters — China domestic supply base
• Euro Asia Packaging (Turkey), Alucon (Thailand) — regional players in MEA & APAC

C. Contract packers / full-service converters (fill & finish; private label)

• Colep Group (Europe, LatAm)
• DS Container (Europe / global)
• CCL Container (decoration & co-pack solutions)
• Numerous regional contract packers serving FMCG and industrial clients — often local leaders per country

D. Component & accessory suppliers (valves, actuators, propellants, coatings)

• Precision valves / valves houses (numerous regional specialists — e.g., Veco, Aptar in related dispensing markets; valve supply is often regional)
• Propellant suppliers / chemical majors — supply hydrocarbons, compressed gases and alternatives (oil & gas majors, chemical distributors)
• Coating & ink suppliers — (specialty chemical providers; many coatings businesses supply aerosol interior/exterior coatings)
• Label/decoration technology providers — varnish, sleeve, litho-printers (local and global OEMs)

E. Downstream & end-user corporate customers (large buyers that shape demand)

• Personal care & FMCG majors: multinational beauty and grooming brands (contract with canmakers & co-packers)
• Household product companies: air-freshener and cleaning product leaders
• Automotive / industrial brands: spray paint and lubricant brands using industrial aerosol formats
• Retail & private label chains: drive demand for local contract packing

How to use this breakdown

Competitive mapping — position each player by segment (material × geography × application). Global metal majors dominate aluminum; regional converters dominate private-label and local industrial supply.

1. Go-to-market — target contract packers and valve suppliers for quick market access; secure long-term offtake with FMCG brands for scale.
2. Investment focus — prioritize aluminum capacity, lightweighting, decoration technologies and localized filling assets in Asia-Pacific and Latin America.
3. Sustainability strategy — emphasize recycled-aluminum sourcing, mono-material design, and propellant substitution collaborations to meet regulatory and retailer requirements.